لنستخرج كنوزا من المعرفة و الإبداع و العلم و الأفكار
Al-Haytham’s advancement to geometry and number theory went well beyond the Archimedean tradition. AlHaytham also operated on analytical geometry and the early stages of the link between algebra and geometry. Subsequently, this work headed to pure mathematics with the harmonious fusion of algebra and geometry that was exemplified by Descartes in geometric analysis and by Newton in calculus. Al-Haytham was a scientist who made major contributions to the fields of mathematics, physics and astronomy during the latter half of the tenth century. John Peckham's use of alHatham's kitab Al-Manazir and Witelo's optics in the late thirteen century, has echoes of Kitab al-Manazir. xiv Muslim scholars added not only to the use of logic in the development of mathematical ideas and relationships, but also to an effective system of numeration that involved zero and headed to the solution of equations. Muslims had thus begun the work that directed on to mathematical modeling and its application for the purpose of testing their theories. This
knowledge and approach was slowly transferred to Europe through Spain and Sisley.xv In Physics: in comparison to all sciences that developed and developed across the passage of nations and civilizations, the natural sciences of Muslims commenced by relying on the publications of the Greeks who drew on mere philosophies in their attempts to understand nature without resorting to experimentation. However, Muslim scientists spared no efforts to develop this basis; they excelled in physics in an unprecedentedly subtle and intelligent fashion to the extent that they seemed to establish a new science. For example, they made physics rely on experimentation and induction rather than on philosophy, speculations, or mere thoughts.xvi Muslim scientists studied acoustics; its origin and its transfer. They were the first to understand that sounds are affected by the bodies that cause them and that these sounds transfer in the air in the form of circular waves. Muslim scientists were also the first to categorize sounds into different types; they expounded that the sounds of animals differ according to the length of their necks, the width of their throats and the structure of their larynx.xvii Muslim scientists were also the first to interpret the occurrence of echo as a reflection of the sound wave which hits a high mountain or wall. The reflection of the echo cannot be realized due to spatial closeness. Abual-Rihan Al-Beruni is a renowned physicist, who determined the specific density of 18 types of precious stones. He established the rule which stated that the specific density of body is equivalent to the volume of the water which makes it moves. He also interpreted the exit of water from geysers and artesian wells in light of the theory of communicating vessels. One of the most important of al-Biruni’s many texts is Shadows which is thought to have been written around 1021. The contents of the work include the Arabic nomenclature of shade and shadows, strange phenomena involving shadows, gnomonic, the history of the tangent and secant functions, applications of the shadow functions to the astrolabe and to other instruments, shadow observations for the solution of various astronomical problems, and the shadow-determined times of Muslim prayers. Shadows is an extremely important source for our knowledge of the history of mathematics, astronomy, and physics. It also contains important ideas such as the idea that acceleration is connected with nonuniform motion, using three rectangular coordinates to
define a point in 3-space, and ideas that some see as expecting the summary of polar coordinates. Topics in physics, which were studied by al-Biruni comprised hydrostatics and made very accurate measurements of specific weights. He defined the ratios between the densities of gold, mercury, lead, silver, bronze, copper, brass, iron, and tin. Al-Biruni displayed the results as combinations of integers and numbers in the form of 1/n, n = 2, 3, 4... 10.xviii Abu al-Fath Abd al-Rahman Mansour al-Khāzini was an incomparable physicist, particularly in relation to dynamics and hydrostatics to the extent that even succeeding researchers were startled. His theories have been calculated in the field on kinetics in schools and universities up till now. Among these theories are the Theory of Obliquity and Inclination and the Theory of Impulse. These two theories played an important role in kinetics. A lot of historians in the field of science regard Al-Khazani the physicist of all physicists. He dedicated most of his time to study hydrostatics; he developed a device to determine the specific gravity of liquids. He further studied the issue of resistance the body faced when it got into water. Al-Khazani as operated the same apparatus used by his great master Al-Beruni to determine the specific gravity of some solid and liquid materials. The measurements of Al-Khazani were so accurate that they amazed his contemporaries and successors. xix Al-Khazini pointed out that air had weight and power to boost things like air, adding that the weight of the object in the air weighs less than its actual weight and its condensed weight depends on the density of air. It is worth of to that these studies paved the way for the inventions of the barometer (pressure measurement), air vacuums and pumps among others. Discovering the Laws of Motion When considering the laws of motion in physics, Muslim scientists were the first to discover the following: Laws of Motion: the importance of the laws of motion lies in the fact that they are viewed as the backbone of contemporary civilization. For example, the sciences of mobile machinery nowadays from the cars, trains, aeroplanes, space rockets, and transatlantic rockets, among others rely on these laws. They have aided man to invade outer space and to land on the moon. Moreover, they are deemed the basis for all physical sciences which depend on motion. Optics is the motion of light, sound is the motion of light waves, and electricity is the motion of electron. It is well known worldwide that these laws had been revealed by the English scientist Isaac Newton since he published his book Principia. This fact, is acknowledged by the whole world and in all scientific circles, including the Muslim schools of course and remained so till the beginning of the twentieth century when a group of contemporary physicists, most prominently Professors of Mathematics examined these laws. They checked the accessible body of Islamic manuscripts in this field and came up with the fact that Muslim scientists were the first to discover these laws. All what Newton did was to collect what had been written on these laws and formulated them in a mathematical form. Setting bias and mere theoretical speech aside, the efforts of Muslim scientists are undisputable. They are recognized in their manuscripts which had been written seven centuries before the birth of Newton.xx The First Law of Motion: the first law of motion in physics stipulates that if the total powers that distress an object are zero, this object will stay unmoving. Likewise, a mobile object leftovers with its constant speed state unless it finds any power that shakes it, such as friction. This was stated in Newton’s mathematical statement when he said “In the absence of force, a body either is at rest or moves in a straight line with constant speed”. When it comes to Muslim scientists and their role in this field, Avicenna in his book “Insinuations and Notices” (Isharat wa Tanbihat) identified the same law in his own words “You know if the object is left unaffected by external influence, it remains as it is”. It is clear that the previous statement of Avicenna regarding the first law of motion precedes that of Isaac Newton who appeared six centuries later. In this statement Avicenna asserted that the object remains at rest or moves at constant speed in a straight line unless external power influences it. That is to say that Avicenna was the first to discover the first law of motion. Second Law of Motion: the second law of motion associates the total powers distressing an object and the increase of its speed, which is known as speed and this speed is in proportion with the volume of the power and has its same direction. According to Newton’s mathematical formulation, “A body experiencing a force F experiences an acceleration a related to F by F = ma, where m is the mass of the body. Alternatively, force is proportional to the time derivative of momentum”. When it comes to Muslims, Hebattullah bin Malaka Al-Baghdadi (480-560 A.H./ 1087-1164CE) indicated in his book “The Considered in Wisdom” (Al- Moatabar fil Hikma). The most solid power transfers fast and takes a short time. Stronger power leads to faster power and shorter the time. If the power does not decrease, the speed does not decrease, either”. In chapter fourteen entitled the Vacuum, he pointed out that “The faster the speed, the stronger the power. The stronger the power that pushes the object, the faster the speed of the object at move, and the shorter the time spent for covering the distance”. This is exactly what Newton mathematically formulated and named the second law of motion.xxi Third Law of Motion: the third law of motion states that if two objects interact, the force of the first object on the second object is called the power of the action, which is equal to the force of the second object practices on the first object, but it holds the opposite direction. This power is called the force of the reaction”. Newton mathematically formulated this law as follows: “Every action has a reaction which is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction”.
